Annotated bibliography/ Intelligence and Emotional development and Bibliography

/ Intelligence and Emotional development and self-esteem - Annotated Bibliography Example This paper focuses only on emotional development and self esteem and is written as an annotated bibliography in order to learn more about self esteem and emotional development. This article defines and explains self esteem in simple words. It says that â€Å"Self esteem is your opinion of yourself†. It explains that self esteem depends on question like: Is your job worthwhile? Do others respect what you do? Do you?;Do you believe you are successful?; How do you see yourself (your self image)?; How do you feel about your strengths and weaknesses?; Are you comparing yourself to others and ignoring the unique value that you have?; What do you think of your social status?; How do you relate to others?; Can you make your own decisions?. The above article divides self esteem into two; low self esteem and high self esteem and explains both of it in simple terms. Alexandria, NSW 2015. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=0TOuX5WW2cgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=self+esteem&source=bl&ots=3zAnBhbi6s&sig=Wi4vBbND5B2qfzqF631h2Gq-JXw&hl=en&ei=FcOETOHoKZC9ccGSsdAL&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q&f=false This book, which is available on Google defines self esteem as how we think and feel about ourselves. It refers to our looks, abilities and relationships. Apart from providing definition, this book explains the methods of measuring self esteem, high and low self esteems, body image, methods to boost self esteem, positive thinking, etc. It also explains some of the psychological disorders like depression and eating disorder caused by low self esteem. This book also explains how do we get self esteem and the different entities which can affect the development of a person’s self esteem. This article says that by the time a child becomes three years old, he or she will become an emotionally complex person who has experienced a wide range of emotions. Parents and

What does prsonal responsibility means to me Essay Example for Free

What does prsonal responsibility means to me Essay What does personal responsibility mean to me? According to Dictionary.com, â€Å"Personal Responsibility is the state or fact of being responsible, answerable, or accountable for something within one’s power, control, or management.† I am taking responsibility to complete my degree. I need to take responsibility for my academic work just like I do with business, I need to finish what I start, and if I take responsibility I will incorporate effective strategies as a student. First, I need to take responsibility for my academic work just like I do with business. It seems that most of my life has consisted in working for myself or for my business. After I dropped out of school and got married I opened up a family restaurant in the Oroville area called Cassidy’s Family Restaurant. We were very successful. Usually a restaurant needs to watch their food and labor numbers very closely but because we had huge volume it wasn’t necessary. At our high point we were bringing in $137,000.00 a week! One year later we opened up a second restaurant in Chico. Here, we did well but I was responsible for two growing, profitable restaurants. After five years I got out of the business and got into Real Estate. This new venture was slow in the beginning. I performed all of the normal marketing procedures that a Real Estate agent would perform and eventually became very proficient. This lead into opening my own agency which was very profitable but I decided to downsize in order to finish my degree. Using these examples, if I apply the same techniques and responsibilities to completing my degree then I should be ready to succeed. Taking responsibility for my academic work like I have with business I will be able to complete my college education. Next, I need to finish what I started. A college education is very important to me. Because I lacked a college education I could not get the high paying job I wanted with a corporation. I needed to make a healthy monthly income and without a college education the only way to make a lot of money was to start your own company. Presently, it’s a good time to finish my education because money is stable and I have the patience to work through  the classes. Also, my degree is probably the most important piece of my life that I have not completed and I am committed Lastly, by taking responsibility for my education I take responsibility to incorporate effective strategies as a student.. My college journey started in the late 80’s and it continued until 1993. I started at the local junior colleges and eventually transferred to U.C. Davis. My first year at Davis was a disaster! I was trying hard to fit in and lived off campus which was ridiculous. The quarter system was new to me and classes went by so fast. I did not take any responsibility for any of my actions. I started to miss classes and tests. Trying to catch up was a nightmare! Thinking back I really could have used more direction with my education. A good example is the exercises that we are completing in class right now. It feels refreshing learning more about myself and how I can actually fit into our class groups. Taking responsibility for my education will allow me to complete my education. Lastly, by taking responsibility I will incorporate effective strategies as a student. I will seek out advice from current successful students to succeed. According to Margaret M. Spieth in Optimizing Online Student Success: Strategies Utilized by technical College Students: 1) Take advantage of face-to-face time offered with your online instructor when you feel the course material is not making sense. Dont go into the class thinking that no face-to-face contact is the best approach. Meet your instructor to answer questions/comments/concerns you may have that an email will not convey properly. 2) Do not assume that an online class will be a breeze because you dont meet face-to-face. 3) It is extremely important to know that it generally takes more time to complete an online class than a traditional class, ranging from 4 hours to 25 hours of your time per class, per week. Plan your personal and online life accordingly and your family will still want all/most of their time -even if they have offered to make sacrifices. 4) Its wonderful to take when you work and have a family. Wish there were more classes like this! pg 140 In Conclusion, it is time to take control of my future education. Through the years I have started and ran successful business but always felt a  little incomplete because I did not complete my education. Using the tools and taking responsibility for my education as I did with my past businesses I should be successful. I am taking responsibility to complete my degree. By doing so I need to take responsibility for my academic work just like I do with business, I need to finish what I start, and if I take responsibility it will be easier to complete my degree. Reference Spieth, Margaret M. (2009). Optimizing Online Student Success: Strategies Utilized by technical College Students, 140. Retrieved from ProQuest LLC responsibility. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged. Retrieved September 16, 2014, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/responsibility

The Australian Legal Systems

The Australian Legal Systems The Australian legal system is based on a fundamental belief in the rule of law, justice and the independence of the judiciary. All people of Australia and non-Australians are treated equally before the law and safeguards exist to ensure that people are not treated arbitrarily or unfairly by governments or officials. Principles such as procedural fairness, judicial precedent and the separation of powers are fundamental to Australias legal system. The common law system, as developed in the United Kingdom, forms the basis of Australian jurisprudence. It is distinct from the civil law systems that operate in Europe, South America and Japan, which are derived from Roman law. Other countries that employ variations of the common law system are the United States, Canada, New Zealand, Malaysia and India. The chief feature of the common law system is that judges decisions in pending cases are informed by the decisions of previously settled cases. Consitution of Australia The United Kingdom passed the Commonwealth of Australian Constitution Act 1900. The significant of the Act was that it created a federal Commonwealth compraising the Commonwealth of Australia and the states. It also incorporated the constitution which came in to effect on January 1901. The Australian Constitution of 1901 established a federal system of government, under which powers are distributed between the federal government and the states Itdefined exclusive powers (investing the federal government with the exclusive power to make laws on matters such as trade and commerce, taxation, defence, external affairs, and immigration and citizenship) and concurrent powers (where both tiers of government are able to enact laws). Thestates and territories have independent legislative power in all matters not specifically assigned to the federal government. Where there is any inconsistency between federal and state or territory laws, federal laws prevail. Federal laws apply to the whole of Australia. Seperation of powers Governing Australia needs lots of power. The Constitution says that this power is divided between three groups of people so they can balance each other. Each group checks the power of the other two. This division of power stops one person or group of people taking over all the power to govern Australia. Legislative power means the power to make laws and is concentrated in the Parliament. Executive power means the power to implement laws and is given to the government. Judicial power gives the High Court power to decide whether laws are legal according to the Constitution. Division of Powers The law making powers which are not stated in the constitution as belonging to the commonwealth remains with the state .The powers are divided between the State Parliament and the Commonwealth parliament.There are some areas where both the commonwealth and the states have power to make laws these are concurrent powers,for example ,the taxation power. The state can however be excluded from these areas if their law are in consistant with those of the commonwealth. Some powers are stated to be exclusive to common wealth. These includes defence powers , the power to impose exercise and customs dudies , the currency, coin age and legal tender power and making of law for the government of a territory. The commonwealth is irestricted on areas for which it can make laws, the state can make laws on the commonwealth areas as long as they are with in the juristiction of the state,where a commonwealth has not been specifically given a power to legislate, then those remaining powers are exclusive to the states , for instance motor law , Criminal law and contract law. Most business law are made as state laws The Commonwealth Parliament The Parliament is at the very heart of the Australian national government. The Parliament consists of the Queen ,represented by the Governor General and two Houses (the Senate and the House of Representatives). These three elements make Australia a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. There are five important functions of parliament: to provide for the formation of a government; to legislate; to provide the funds needed for government; to provide a forum for popular representation; and to scrutinise the actions of government. The Governor-General The Governor-General is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Governor-General performs a large number of functions which are defined by the Constitution, but fall roughly into three categories: constitutional and statutory duties, formal ceremonial duties, and non-ceremonial social duties. On virtually all matters, however, the Governor-General acts on the advice of the Ministry. The Senate The Senate has 76 Senators 12 are elected for each of the 6 states, and 2 each for the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory. State Senators are elected for 6 year terms, territory Senators for 3 year terms. Historically, the Senate has been regarded as a States House: the States enjoy equal representation in the Senate, regardless of their population, and State matters are still important to Senators. The modern Senate is a very powerful Chamber. Bills cannot become law unless they are agreed to in the same terms by each House, except in the rare circumstances of a double dissolution followed by a joint sitting of both the houses The Senate has a highly developed committee system and Senators spend much of their time on committee work. The House of Representatives The House of Representatives has 150 Members each representing a separate electoral division. Members are elected for terms of up to 3 years. The most distinctive feature of the House is that the party or group with majority support in the House forms the Government. The accountability of the Government is illustrated every sitting day, especially during Question Time. Members have many other functions. They are involved in law making, committee work and in representing their electors. Executive Government The Prime Minister is appointed by the Governor-General, who by convention under the Constitution, must appoint the parliamentary leader of the party, or coalition of parties, which has a majority of seats in the House of Representatives. This majority party becomes the government and provides the ministers, all of whom must be members of Parliament. The Federal Executive Council, referred to in the Constitution, comprises all ministers, with the Governor-General presiding. Its principal functions are to receive ministerial advice and approve the signing of formal documents such as proclamations, regulations, ordinances and statutory appointments. Federal Judicature The Constitution provides for the establishment of the High Court of Australia and such other courts as Parliament may create. The judges of the High Court are appointed by the Governor-General in Council (acting on advice of the Federal Executive Council). The functions of the High Court are to interpret and apply the law of Australia; to decide cases of special federal significance including challenges to the constitutional validity of laws; and to hear appeals, by special leave, from Federal, State and Territory courts State and territory courts. Australian state and territory courts have jurisdiction in all matters brought under state or territory laws. They also handle some matters arising under federal laws, where jurisdiction has been conferred by the federal parliament. State and territory courts deal with most criminal matters, whether arising under federal, state or territory law.Each state and territory court system operates independently.

college essay :: essays research papers

College will be a major change for me; in all likelihood, it will probably be the most significant transformation I will experience. It will be a time of growth and learning. In order to adapt to these many changes I hope to mature both emotionally and educationally. In doing so, I will influence those around me and the community as a whole. I anticipate that my life experiences will prove to be valuable to me and to those I come into contact with.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I have had many challenges to overcome thus far. I’ve had problems with my school work, but most significantly, problems with myself. I have made many wrong decisions and I have had trouble realizing what is important to me in the past. I now know what steps I need to take in order to become a better person and to stay on the right path that I have chosen. I hope to continue this pattern of maturation by accomplishing my goal of academic excellence while attending New Jersey City University. I have already promised myself that I will not participate in any activity that will lead me astray morally or academically. I am very good at meeting all of the challenges that I have to meet. I have already begun to take an initive on guiding myself in the right direction, by taking my school work seriously, looking for a job that would benefit my major, and working harder to make my self happy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  I am interested in majoring in Media Arts at New Jersey City University. I am taking a Media Arts curse in High School now and I am really interested in the aspects that go on in the field of Media. I like the wide verity of oppurtunities someone can get with an education in Media Arts. A major thing that attracted me to your university was your great school on Media. I also took a tour of your campus and feel in love at first site. I am currently participating in my high school peer ministry program. Which is a program in our school that gives specially selected seniors an opportunity to show their leadership skills to the incoming freshman by giving them an opportunity to be comfortable at St. Mary High School. I stay active by playing sports such as basketball, baseball, & bowling. I’m also interested in music.

Classroom Discipline Essay

Effective discipline is a challenge for all educators. â€Å"The issue of discipline, also referred to as classroom management, continues to surface as one of the most challenging problems in education today† (â€Å"The Discipline Dilemma: Problems and Promises. †). Research suggests in order to maintain a well-disciplined classroom, teachers must establish rules and expectations, enforce limits of rules, encourage and reinforce positive behavior, and effectively manage their classrooms. Effective discipline begins with rules, enforced with logical and meaningful consequences. Desired behavior is encouraged and positively reinforced. Teachers who manage their classroom efficiently use discipline as a teaching tool so students benefit and learn stability, order, respect, and values of law. â€Å"Strictly speaking, discipline means to teach, not to punish† (â€Å"Discipline as Teaching†). Setting clear, firm rules and expectation which leave little room for interpretation will establish a solid foundation by which a classroom will function. Begin the school year by setting clear rules, and using good morals and values to build positive expectations. The use of positive language will promote the behavior desired from students. Setting positive rules and expectations will give teachers and students the right mindset to start the school year off right. Start the school year off by setting clear rules. â€Å"The formulation of classroom rules from the beginning of the year has been found to be one of the most important components of effective discipline† (â€Å"Discipline in K through 8th Grade Classrooms†) The first day of school, while teachers are getting to know students and vice versa, is a good day to establish what is expected before any misbehavior can occur. Involve students in the rule making process. This allows them to voice what they expect of their classmates. Depending on the age of students, teachers may get unusual requests for rules; however, students may also have expectations of their peers which the teacher may not have thought of. Students should not make all of the rules for the class, so their input should be limited to an appropriate, manageable number. After rules are made, they should be discussed and posted where they can be easily seen. Students should fully understand what is expected so little room is left for them to interpret what they is desired. There should be a time for questions about rules so students can get clarification on any rules they do not understand. Students should also be able to demonstrate their understanding by putting the newly established rules to use in practice scenarios. By posting rules where they are easily visible, students can be easily reminded of what is expected of them. Most importantly, teachers should be prepared to change and revise rules if they are not functioning in the intended way. Include students in the change. They should give their input on why the rule is not working and how it should be modified to suit its purpose. Teachers are ultimately responsible to make changes. Once a new or modified rule is established, it should be put into effect and students should be reminded of the change when necessary. The use of good morals and values to build positive expectations will help students build character qualities that will enhance the learning environment. â€Å"The most effective and respected teachers express their beliefs, demands, and expectations within the context of clear values and goals that benefit learning† (â€Å"`Discipline with dignity’: Beyond obedience. â€Å"). Positive expectations tell what qualities are desired and how those qualities can be achieved. For example, honesty is a quality desired by all teachers and would be achieved by telling students to tell the truth all of the time. The quality is stated in a positive manner, instead of using the negative, â€Å"do not lie. † Use a mission statement to define what is desired and expected. The statement should give purpose to classroom rules. It should give a general explanation of what is expected and should communicate positive expectations effectively. The mission statement should also be used to troubleshoot behavior, by asking students if their behavior agrees with the expectations in mission statement. Give appropriate expectations so goals are attainable. When goals are reached, teachers should acknowledge the achievement and set higher goals. Students should have individual and class goals. Students learn and mature in different ways, making individual goals just as important as goals set for the class. Responsibility is a goal all teachers have for their students and as such a goal is reached, students should be given more responsibility and independence. Teachers should use positive language to promote the behavior they want from students. Effective teachers communicate in a way that promotes what is desired, rather than what is not desired. Rules and expectations should inform students what to do instead of what not to do. Teachers should refrain from using words like â€Å"do not,† â€Å"never,† among others. Rules should be put in a format that states a direction and an action. For example, â€Å"When getting in line, always line up in two lines with boys in one line and girls in another. † Telling students what not to do will leave students guessing what they are supposed to do. Teachers should speak using positive words, even when giving feedback on a negative situation. Teachers should set the example of positive behavior for students. Most students look up to their teachers. Sometimes, teachers are the only positive influence on students. In light of this, teachers should behave accordingly and be cautious of what they say and do in the presence of their students. When rules are not followed, teachers must enforce limits of rules with fair and effective punishment. It is necessary for students to be held accountable for their actions. Teachers should use action to enforce rules and communicate effectively with students to reach an understanding and solution. Students should be held accountable for their actions. â€Å"They [teachers] hold students accountable by expressing approval and disapproval, and they seek consequences that teach each student a connection between what they have done and what happens as a result of those actions† (â€Å"`Discipline with dignity’: Beyond obedience. â€Å"). When students are held accountable, they are learning that all of their choices have consequences. Broken rules should be enforced immediately. Teachers should correct misbehavior and broken rules as soon as they are noticed. Punishment should be done privately; however, correction should be immediate. If a teacher ignores one broken rule or behavior, the student will continue to test the limits of the established rules. Enforcement should be simple and should let the student know you see what is happening. For example, â€Å"It’s a good thing I like you,† â€Å"Here’s the deal: I’ll pretend I didn’t see that, and you never do it again,† â€Å"Consider yourself scolded,† â€Å"Can you solve that? Or do you need me to intervene,† â€Å"Am I driving you over the edge? † and â€Å"That’s inappropriate† (â€Å"Learning to Discipline. â€Å"). When rules are being enforced, teachers should focus on the rule broken, not the problem. For ten rules, there could be fifty problems. When enforcing rules, the problem should not be the focus. For instance, a student is talking while another student is addressing the class. When correcting the behavior of the student who is talking, the teacher should focus on the rule: Be respectful to all students and teachers. The situation can easily be corrected by saying something like, â€Å"You were talking while another student was giving a book report. Our rules say we are to be respectful to all students and teachers. † This method allows students to understand that talking is not always a problem, but they must follow the rules. Use action to enforce rules when needed. â€Å"Teachers must use action, not anger to control behavior† (â€Å"A Back-to-Basics Approach to Classroom Discipline. â€Å"). Teachers should avoid yelling at students as a control measure. Anger will upset students instead of correcting their behavior, and they may later lash out in anger. Action shows students the teacher is in control. When action is required, it should be swift and firm, without negotiation. If teachers threaten punishment, they should follow through. Punishment should be given the same day it is warranted, if possible. Once a punishment has been decided, students should not be allowed to negotiate the punishment or its terms. Use a variety of consequences and vary them for different students; not all students will respond to the same consequences. At the same time, using the same punishment over and over will not be effective. Subject work should not be given as a punishment. Use positive punishment when possible, giving students a chance to apologize in writing or in front of the class, or  rectifying a situation. Consistency is essential when disciplining students. Avoiding favorites is one way to ensure discipline will be consistent. Similar infractions should have similar consequences. If more than one student is being punished for the same offence, all of the students should receive a similar punishment. Effective communication is essential when correcting and disciplining students. A one-on-one conversation should take place that identifies the broken rule, explains the punishment and gives feedback. When speaking to students, teachers should ask for input from the student about the situation. In gathering information, teachers need to know the difference between a mistake and misbehavior; mistakes happen while learning while misbehavior is intentional. To maintain the dignity of students, teachers should have a one on one conversation to identify the reason a rule was broken and to gather any additional information needed to make a logical decision about a punishment. â€Å"Through conversation and social interaction with more capable adults and peers, students can negotiate ways to reach an understanding and/or a solution to the problem at hand† (â€Å"Classroom Management: Seventy-Three Suggestions for Secondary School Teachers. â€Å"). When enforcing discipline with a punishment, teachers should explain the wrong doing and why it goes against classroom rules. It is important to remember to focus on the rule, not the problem. Furthermore, the punishment should also be explained in detail to avoid any confusion. During the one-on-one conversation, teachers should give feedback on the negative behavior and why it is not desired. Include ways to keep the behavior from resurfacing. Also, talk about ways to further improve. Things discussed in this conversation should stay between the teacher and student. Reinforcement and encouragement of positive behavior by teachers is necessary for students to exhibit good behavior. The teacher must set the standards and go about efficiently and consistently shaping the appropriate behavior Teachers should encourage positive behavior. They should be a positive influence, but not force students to change. Teachers will be encouraging positive behavior by empowering students to make good choices on their own, while recognizing the consequences of the wrong choices. Ask questions before a rule is broken that requires the student’s thought and reflection. When teachers give students options regarding which choices to make, students will then think about the end result and the consequences of their choices. It is also necessary to reinforce positive behavior in a way that encourages students. Students learn to behave only as certain behaviors are reinforced. When reinforcing behavior, teachers should recognize good attitudes and the desires of their students to learn. Rewards are always a good idea when reinforcing behavior; however, students should understand a reward is something you earn, not something required. In effectively managed classrooms, the teacher is the authoritarian. Teachers should plan ahead and be prepared. The teacher should also be the final authority, especially concerning how students are to be and how the class schedule will run. In a classroom, the teacher is responsible for the learning that takes place. Successful teachers are prepared before coming to school, so they can begin reaching as soon as the late bell rings. Teachers must have lessons planned in advance and have daily objectives for each subject to be taught. Teachers should strive for a productive classroom where students are learning and achieving. â€Å"†¦two goals teachers should have: productive classroom environment and student satisfaction. â€Å"No teacher can truly succeed without achieving both goals† (â€Å"Classroom Management: Seventy-Three Suggestions for Secondary School Teachers†). Teachers should also be the authority for their students. It is the job of the teacher to lead students. Teachers have a duty to their students to structure their class schedule and decide how class time is best utilized. Teachers also have the responsibility to make an organized seating arrangement that allows students to learn and be productive, and allows for the teacher to reach each student. â€Å"Authoritarians know that students work and learn best in well-organized, directional, and purposeful classrooms† (â€Å"A Back-to-Basics Approach to Classroom Discipline. â€Å"). In conclusion, discipline is the foundation of a successful classroom. Research suggests in order to maintain a well-disciplined classroom, teachers must establish rules and expectations, enforce limits of rules, encourage and reinforce positive behavior, and effectively manage their classrooms. With established rules and positive expectations, students will know what behavior is desired. Teachers should be prepared for discipline problems with firm and fair action. Effective classroom management will allow for a productive and purposeful classroom. Whatever the causes of student misbehavior, there’s no denying that being able to skillfully handle it is a prerequisite for getting kids engaged in worthwhile content or moving peacefully from class to class. Works Cited Conte, Anthony E. The Discipline Dilemma: Problems and Promises Education. 2. 115. 308. Chemlynski, Carol. Discipline as Teaching. Education Digest. 3. 62. 42. Geiger, Brenda. Discipline in K through 8th Grade Classrooms. Education Digest. 2. 121. 383. Curwin, Richard L. `Discipline with dignity: Beyond obedience. Education Digest. 4. 63. 11. Metzger, Margaret. Learning to Discipline. Phi Delta Kappan. 1. 84. 170. McDaniel, Thomas R. A Back-to-Basics Approach to Classroom Discipline. Cleaning House. 5. 67. 254 Brainard, Edward. Classroom Management: Seventy-Three Suggestions for Secondary School Teachers. Cleaning House. 4. 74. 207.

Solons Constitution and the Rise of Democracy

Solons Constitution and the Rise of Democracy And all the others were called Thetes, who were not admitted to any office, but could come to the assembly, and act as jurors; which at first seemed nothing, but afterwards was found an enormous privilege, as almost every matter of dispute came before them in this latter capacity.- Plutarch Life of Solon Reforms of Solons Constitution After dealing with the immediate crises in 6th century Athens, Solon redefined citizenship so as to create the foundations of democracy. Before Solon, the eupatridai (nobles) had a monopoly on the government by virtue of their birth. Solon replaced this hereditary aristocracy with one based on wealth. In the new system, there were four propertied classes in Attica (greater Athens). Depending on how much property they owned, citizens were entitled to run for certain offices denied those lower on the property scale. In return for holding more positions, they were expected to contribute more. Those who were worth 500 measures of fruits, dry and liquid, he placed in the first rank, calling them Pentacosiomedimni (note the prefix meaning five);Those who could keep a horse, or were worth three hundred measures, were named Hippada Teluntes, and made the second class (note the hipp- prefix meaning horse);The Zeugitae, who had two hundred measures, were in the third (note the zeug- is thought to refer to a yoke).Solon added, as a fourth class, the thetes, serfs with only a small amount of property. Classes (Review) PentacosiomedimnoiHippeisZeugitaiThetes Offices to which members could be elected (by class) PentacosiomedimnoiTreasurer,Archons,Financial officials, and theBoule.HippeisArchons,Financial officials, and theBoule.ZeugitaiFinancial officials, and theBouleThetes Property Qualification and Military Obligation Pentacosiomedimnoiproduced 500 measures or more of produce per year.Hippeis (cavalry)produced 300 measures.Zeugitai (hoplites)produced 200 measures.Thetesdidnt produce enough for the military census. It is thought that Solon was the first to admit the thetes to the ekklesia (assembly), the meeting of all citizens of Attica. The ekklesia had a say in appointing archons and could also listen to accusations against them. The citizenry also formed a judicial body (dikasteria), which heard many legal cases. Under Solon, rules were relaxed as to who could bring a case to court. Earlier, the only ones who could do so were the injured party or his family, but now, except in cases of homicide, anyone could. Solon may also have established the boule, or Council of 400, to determine what should be discussed in the ekklesia. One hundred men from each of the four tribes (but only those in the upper three classes) would have been picked by lot to form this group. However, since the word boule would also have been used by the Areopagus, and since Cleisthenes created a boule of 500, there is cause to doubt this Solonian accomplishment. The magistrates or archons may have been selected by lot and election. If so, each tribe elected 10 candidates. From the 40 candidates, nine archons were selected by lot each year. This system would have minimized influence-peddling while giving the gods the ultimate say. However, in his Politics, Aristotle says the archons were selected the way they had been before Draco, with the exception that all citizens had the right to vote. Those archons who had completed their year in office were enrolled in the Council of the Areopagus. Since archons could only come from the top three classes, its composition was entirely aristocratic. It was considered a censoring body and the guardian of the laws. The ekklesia had the power to try archons at the end of their year in office. Since the ekklesia probably selected the archons, and since, in time, it became common practice to make legal appeals to the ekklesia, the ekklesia (i.e., the people) had the supreme power. References J.B. Bury. A History of Greece.Reed Colleges David Silvermans Early Athenian Institutions (http://homer.reed.edu/GkHist/EarlyAthenianLect.html)John Porters Solon (http://duke.usask.ca/~porterj/CourseNotes/SolonNotes.html)Athenian Democracy (keele.ac.uk/depts/cl/iahcla~7.htm)Ancient Greece: Athens (wsu.edu:8080/~dee/GREECE/ATHENS.HTM)

3 Faulty Constructions of In-Line Lists

3 Faulty Constructions of In-Line Lists 3 Faulty Constructions of In-Line Lists 3 Faulty Constructions of In-Line Lists By Mark Nichol The interrelationship of words or phrases in a list of things set out in a sentence (known as an in-line list, as opposed to a vertical list) is often obscured by erroneous syntax. For each of the following examples, discussion and revision point out the errors of equivalency. 1. The average large project runs 45 percent over budget, 7 percent past deadline, and delivers 56 percent less value than expected. The verb runs pertains to the first two figures but not to the last, so the first two list items must be connected by a conjunction to share it, and because doing so reduces the number of list items from three to two, no commas are necessary: â€Å"The average large project runs 45 percent over budget and 7 percent past deadline and delivers 56 percent less value than expected.† 2. Cybersecurity is a critical organizational priority in the boardroom, C-suite, information technology department, and every area of the business. Each of the first three items in this list, to be parallel with the final item, should have their own iteration of the: â€Å"Cybersecurity is a critical organizational priority in the boardroom, the C-suite, the information technology department, and every area of the business.† Alternately, the structure of the sentence can be altered so that the first three items constitute one larger item, which requires a couple of revisions to the sentence so that it and the final item are equivalent: â€Å"Cybersecurity is a critical organizational priority in the boardroom, C-suite, and information technology department and in every area of the business.† 3. Over the years, Jones would also master piano, bass guitar, clarinet, alto and tenor saxophone. Alto is not a distinct list item- it is part of the item â€Å"alto and tenor saxophone†- so that phrase must be preceded by a conjunction: â€Å"Over the years, Jones would also master piano, bass guitar, clarinet, and alto and tenor saxophone.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Style category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Idioms About Talking25 Russian Words Used in English (and 25 More That Should Be)6 Foreign Expressions You Should Know

How does temperature affect the viscosity of oils Essay Example

How does temperature affect the viscosity of oils Essay Example How does temperature affect the viscosity of oils Essay How does temperature affect the viscosity of oils Essay PredictionI predict that as the temperature of the oil increases the viscosity will increase. This means that the ball bearing will drop down quicker as the oil is heated. I think this because when the oil is heated the molecules will vibrate because they are given energy by the heat. This causes the molecules to move apart leaving gaps in between which the ball bearing will be able to move through easily.MethodTake a glass tube and hold it in a clamp stand. Mark up to where you want to put the oil. Fill up to the mark with C6 oil at room temperature. Then drop a ball bearing from the rim of the glass tube. Make sure you start the watch at the exact same time as you drop the ball bearing. Stop the watch as soon as the ball bearing touches the bottom of the tube and put the time of this in the results table. Do this three times and take the average.Repeat these steps for C8, C10, C12 and C16 oils at room temperature. Put the jars of oil into a beaker of water and use a Bunsen burner t o heat it. Try and prevent the water going over the top of the jars of oil, as the water may go into the oils and this would affect the results. When the oil is heated to the required temperature repeat what you did for the oils at room temperature. The oils should be heated to 30à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C then 40à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C, then 50à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C, then 60à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C, and finally 70à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C.ApparatusClamp, Clamp stand, Glass tube, Ball bearing, Bunsen burner, Tripod, Gauze, Water, 250ml beaker, Stopwatch, Thermometer, C6, C8, C10, C12, and C16 oils.DiagramPreliminary DiagramPreliminary WorkMy preliminary work helped me significantly to write my plan. Through trying to carry out some practice tests, I found that it was hard and not particularly accurate if I just picked up the ball bearing and dropped it from a little bit above the tube because then my results will be inaccurate. This is why I decided to drop the ball bearing from the rim of the glass tube. This meant it would always be t he same force being put on the ball bearing. My preliminary work has also helped me to determine what the angle the tube should be at. The reason I chose to have the tube at 35à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ to the tabletop was that at 90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ the ball bearing fell much too fast making it difficult to measure the time. However at 0à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ to the table the ball bearing didnt move at all, thats why I chose a position between the two. This meant it would move down fairly quickly but not too fast as that we couldnt time it.Here are some of our resultsTube angled at Tube angled at Tube angled at90à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 0à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 35à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1st time recorded 0.35 secs N/A* 1.96 secs2nd time recorded 0.39 secs N/A* 1.92 secsVariable FactorsOne of many variable factors would be the gradient of the tube. This must be kept at the same angle 35à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. An easy way to do this is to leave the clamp alone and only open and close the claw part of the clamp. Another factor is the temperature of the oil s. To do this you must measure the oils temperature and make sure that you measure the oil, not just the water they are being heated in. The height of which the ball bearing is dropped should be kept the same so that it doesnt gather more momentum before it hits the oil. That is why it must be dropped from the same height; I chose the rim because then I know it will always be the same. The ball bearing you use must be the same because then the resistance of the ball bearing will be the same.Accurate ResultsTo ensure that I get accurate results I will try and keep the entire variable factors the same all the way through the experiment. If I do this then it will not only make sure that my results will be accurate but it will make sure that the only thing I will be experimenting is the viscosity of the oils and how temperature affects it. I will not be testing anything else.Range of ResultsI want to take 5 times from each of the oils at each temperature. If I do this then I will be abl e to take an average score. This is a good thing because it means that if I mess up one of the drops then it wont matter as much because I will take an average of the 5 times.I will set out my table like this:E.g. Oil C6OilRoom temperature35à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½50à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C65à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C80à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CC61st Time2nd Time3rd Time4th TimeAverageResultsOilRoom temperature35à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½50à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C65à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C80à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½CC61st Time1.151.181.030.720.752nd Time1.151.060.930.810.833rd Time1.251.081.091.010.94th Time1.181.190.960.970.815th Time1.251.140.870.970.82Average1.1961.130.9760.8960.822C81st Time1.591.391.10.990.82nd Time1.711.311.211.080.933rd Time1.611.491.11.10.944th Time1.811.511.121.230.985th Time1.541.561.151.090.89Average1.6521.4521.1361.0980.908C101st Time2.141.861.441.611.042nd Time2.171.881.551.140.973rd Time2.131.841.51.161.014th Time1.192.011.491.121.015th Time2.321.991.541.150.98Average1.991.9161.5041.2361.002C121st Time2.71.921.571.1612nd Time2.672.181.661.251.053rd Time2.672.011.631.150.974th Time2.811.961.641.151.025th Time2.691.951.621.291.1Average2.7082.0041.6241.21.028C161st Time4.813.362.772.491.812nd Time4.713.362.792.221.563rd Time4.923.562.682.431.644th Time4.753.523.142.311.575th Time4.93.613.082.421.74Average4.8183.4822.8922.3741.664AnalysisFrom my table and graph I can see that

Chance of Success for E-Commerce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Chance of Success for E-Commerce - Essay Example Around the world, photography has become a growing interest among individuals. With the addition of phones with cameras in them, the number of pictures that an average person takes per day can be anywhere between 20 to 50 pictures. These amateur photographers also like to share their photos with others but do not have much of a platform for this. The aim of â€Å"eGallery.com† is to give these individuals a chance to show their photographs and get recognized among others for their brilliance. The target audience varies from is upcoming young artists to other keen amateur photographers who just have the desire to show their talent to the world. In short, people all around the world will be able to use this platform with registered usernames. The site will offer three different types of registrations, amateur accounts, basic professional accounts and elite professional accounts. By offering limited access to the amateur accounts, we expect most users to upgrade to one of the pro fessional accounts to gain access to more user upload space and unlimited uploads. The amateur account and basic professional accounts will also have restrictions on the sizes of the photographs uploaded. To counter these restrictions, the elite professional account will be restriction free with unlimited photograph sizes and storage space. Also, an added online photo editor application will be available only to the elite professional users. This will target individuals who are interested in displaying their work or individuals who appreciate professional photography and are interested in buying photographs that appeal to them. Google, Bing and Facebook ads will be used to deliver the website name to the targeted people. The elements that the website will use to have an effective strategy for the website marketing are 4Ps i.e. price, promotion, place, and products. There will be very strong online competition from websites that have already been present in the market for similar pur poses such as â€Å"deviantart.com†. â€Å"deviantart.com† already focuses on providing its art products to the public by purchasing them online. (Wall Art at deviantART.com). To tackle our competition, the website of eGallery.com will provide an easy platform to use and also provide online photo editing applications. The website will also provide its basic professional and elite professional accounts with free of cost advertising of their photographs. A SWOT analysis has been conducted to get a better perspective of the competition and to analyze the website and its competitor strategies. The SWOT analysis has been provided in this report. To operate our core processes, we would have the bank which would be dealing with all the online transactions of users and buyers. On the other hand, we would get a corporate account with â€Å"box.net† to counter the mass online storage of all the photos involved. â€Å"box.net† has been a leader in the field of provi ding professional online solutions to companies which require storage. (Simple Online Collaboration: Online File Storage). These will be our primary two agents in the middle to help us operate our website once it is up and running. An investment of roughly $7000 will also be involved in the set-up of the website. This will also involve a payment of $500 dollars every time the website needs to be updated to meet new requirements.

An analysis of the Culture of an organization Essay

An analysis of the Culture of an organization - Essay Example Hofstede’s theoretical framework Hofstede’s cultural framework focuses on the effects of the national culture on the organizational culture. The theoretical framework is explained using the five dimensions in relation to national work related values. The dimensions encompass the â€Å"power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and long-term verses short-term perspective† (Boonghee, Donthu, & Lenartowicz, 2011). According to the power distance concept, small power distance cultures prefer consultative and democratic power relations while large power distance cultures like the one in UK prefer non-democratic power relations. It is worth stating that Ben and Jerry exude a distinct relationship amidst the personnel and management. For example, the organization appreciates the need for a traditional, homemade approach to operations (Data Monitor, 2004). This means that people at the lower ranks acknowledge powers of others according to their hi gher formal and hierarchical position (Orr & Hauser, 2008). The individualism verses collectivism concept explains how much the cultural members perceive themselves apart from being members of the group. It is clear that the company supports the community. Additionally, it values its association with employees, and other stakeholders. This has significantly contributed to its progress within the societal set-up. This has allowed the organization to attract diverse persons. Data Monitor (2004) indicates that the product was made with love and care. This allows it to attract varied participants in the market. Analysis of Ben and Jerry highlights a mixture of the diverse roles within an organization. However, masculinity verses femininity concept explains the value given to males and females traditionally, the Ben and Jerry seems to have dynamic roles for both genders. In masculine culture, people value competitiveness and acquisition of wealth regardless of gender. However, the femini nity culture value relationships and life quality. These two concepts appear to have found a balance at Ben and Jerry. (Xiumei & Jinying, 2011). For example, the pictures presented by Data Monitor (2004) accords women and men similar advertising space. For example, men highlight the wrestling match while the community outreach is a preserve of the women. Indeed, this clear depicts the gender roles at the company. The uncertainty avoidance dimension explains how the cultural members address potential risks. For example, the company houses unconventional and non-conformist persons. However, this has changed to embrace changes and address risks. The stakeholders are not trying to behave according to the expectation of the society leaders. Data Monitor (2004) indicates that it focuses on mainstream, and shuns mass marketing that target on benefiting several persons. In organizations with such cultures, employees are devoted to their employers. Cultures that exude diminished levels of un certainty avoidance have embedded and flexible rules. In organizations with this culture, employees tend change their employers frequently (Shah, 2012). The long-term verses short-term explains the society’s attachment to its present and to its past. In the societies that are long-term oriented, individuals focus on the activities that affect the society’s future. For example, Ben and Jerry shifted from being unconventional to addressing varied needs making

E-Commerce Strategy Truly Scrumptious Assignment

E-Commerce Strategy Truly Scrumptious - Assignment Example Our company objective is to import a variety of traditional and non-traditional sweets, package them and distribute them to retailers across UK. While we have a good network of retailers who carry our goods, we have no way to reach directly to our consumers or to market directly to them. In this regard there is an opportunity for Truly Scrumptious for increased market penetration and to sell to individuals who would like to purchase our sweets at the whole sale prices or in greater quantity. While the costs in opening our own distribution outlet can run extremely high, including rental, shop interior and exterior, recruiting and training counter salespeople, a change in distribution routes and marketing - a much more efficient and technology enabled option is to invest in a company website. Objectives and design of Website: The main object of the website is to communicate with our consumers, to tell them about the quality and variety of our products and to persuade them to purchase t he sweets on at least a trial basis. Our long term plan will be to retain a loyal consumer base of individuals who become regular visitors to our website and purchase consistently. The e-commerce strategy will be a StoreFront model- providing all the traditional options of a physical store in a digital medium for the customer. The secondary objectives will be to provide a forum for customer feedback and product information for interested retailers who wish to start a business relationship with us. In order to fulfill these objectives the website will need to have certain features: 1. An attention grabbing, yet focused and uncluttered design 2. Product categories will be neatly laid out and easy to access 3. Pricing, ingredients and nutrition information will be available with each product description 4. The product description should be catchy and attractive 5. Shopping cart and online payment options, with easy save and change 6. Comments sections 7. Customer service communication options 8. Discounts, bundle pricing and other promotions 9. A separate page for interested vendors and retailers with contact and product information These features will be catered specifically towards a customer base of the middle and upper-middle class who are comfortable with online shopping and treat sweets like an indulgent pleasure. The whole website experience should be easy to navigate with eye catching visuals and elegant descriptions which will grab the reader’s attention and convenient use of shopping cart and payment options will allow impulse buying. The E-retailing atmosphere is steadily getting crowded. New merchants are appearing every day and through continuous reviewing of operations and strategy websites are competing for the top spots of the industry. For our website to break through clutter, attract traffic and increase sales we need to have a clear, focused objective from the start. Technical and Practical steps The website building will involve three m ain steps namely 1) Content and designing 2) Hosting the website (external storage, capacity and bandwidth etc) 3) Marketing and promotion. Afterwards our main priority will be maintenance, updating content and reviewing impact on sales. The actual sales, distribution and customer service will still be controlled by the respective departments with support from the IT department in integrating the physical aspects

Organisational Change in the Oticon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Organisational Change in the Oticon - Essay Example The above issues regarding creativity appear in all aspects of life including business activities. In the case of Oticon, creativity has been expressed mostly through the initiatives taken by its president, Lars Kolind, who managed to apply an innovative strategy of change in all the company’s sectors within the 10 years that remained in the firm’s presidency. The whole creative management response of Kolind regarding Oticon is presented in Appendix Ia where the most important strategic decisions of Kolind had been summarized in order to create an ‘alternative Creative Management Response Model’ as presented in Appendix I. As shown in Appendix Ia, the main characteristics of change management applied by Kolind were the redefinition of the company’s vision, the creation of the project-based scheme of operation, the enhancement of the trust towards the employees, the development of technology used in all corporate sectors (from the administration depar tment to the production area) and the set of short-term goals rather than the long term plans which were proved to be inadequate for the company’s development in the modern commercial area. On the other hand, the reduction in the number of employees as taken place in the initial phase of change (in fact in the first two years of Kolind’s presidency) was only temporary and the restructuring of the company’s administration, as well as the reassignment of activities, led to the development of company’s performance on a continuous basis. Towards this direction, the enhancement of communication in the internal environment, as well as the promotion of the team work (through the cooperation of groups on a specific project), also supported the effectiveness of the strategy of change applied by Kolind. Every form of metaphor has its particular role in the business strategy (in accordance with the targets set by the organization’s leader) and it can be used along with other tools of strategic management in order to lead to specific results.

A report of the recent performance of a banking sector in a country of Essay

A report of the recent performance of a banking sector in a country of your choice - Essay Example In the case of the British banking industry, the repeated failures of banks to meet the market rules led to severe losses, a fact which has traumatized the British economy, which is still in a period of recovery. The recent performance of banking industry in Britain is examined in this paper. It is revealed that banks across the country have managed to stabilize their performance, even if the relevant process has not, yet, ended. Another important finding of the research developed for this paper has been the following one: banks which have been well established in the British market have been able to face more effectively the pressures caused because of the crisis of 2007-2009. Also, the support of the state to the banks has been of critical importance for the recovery of the British banking sector, even if efforts are still required for the performance of banks in Britain to be stabilized. It should be noted that the paper is highly based on the material published in governmental an d non-governmental organizations. Also, recent articles from newspapers across Britain – worldwide also – have been used in order to show the current performance of banks in the particular country – aiming to reflect the current conditions of the country’s banking sector. 2. ... England can control the stability of the country’s financial system, the FSA has certain powers, as described in the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 while the HM Treasury can overview the performance of relevant legal rules and report their violation, if such activity is identified, to the Parliament (Bank of England 2011). Traditionally, the role of banks in the British economy has been quite important. In fact, banks in UK have been considered as ‘the most respectable organizations’ (UK Banks 2011); however, this was a view related to the pre-2007, i.e. before the development of the crisis. Since the appearance of the global financial crisis, in 2007, the performance of British banks has started to be reduced – this trend is continued, even more slowly, up today. An indicative example of the effects of the crisis on the performance of the British banks has been the following one: because of the crisis the profits of Halifax Bank were reduced by 72 %, while in Lloyds-TSB, the reduction of profits reached a level of 70% (UK banks 2011). The British bank less affected by the crisis was HSBC with a limitation of profitability of approximately 28% (UK banks 2000). The effects of the crisis on British banks were controlled through the intervention of the British government (in October 2008) who offered ‘an amount of ? 500 billion’ (UK banks 2011) for helping British banks to exit the crisis with the less possible losses. In January of 2009 the British government offered an additional amount of ? 50 billion’ (UK banks 2011) to support the country’s banking sector. The reference to the above facts is necessary in order to evaluate the current performance of British banks, as explained in the next section. 2.2. Recent performance of banks in the British

Process Improvement Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Process Improvement Plan - Essay Example First process identified is going to sterile processing department. Second Process identified is taking instruments set for service. Third process identified is sharpening and repairing surgical instruments. Among the three processes, two of which can be measured. Instruments set for service can be measured for their quality, sharpness and usability. Sharpened and repaired surgical instruments can also be measured for their quality, sharpness and usability. Quality and usability are attribute characteristics of instruments that are intangible. The measurement of both characteristics can be a count of the number of defects. On the other hand, sharpness is a characteristic of the instrument that can be measured using a specialized instrument such as a micrometer. A statistical process control can be employed in order to measure the sharpness of a surgical instrument. Statistical process control or SPC is a technique for error prevention rather than error detection. The goals of SPC are to improve quality, reduce cost, increase profit and enhance competitive advantage. Steps taken to improve a process will result in fewer defects and better quality products delivered to the customer. Application of SPC can produce improvements in yield, reduce cost and increase efficiency. It can also create a high degree of visibility of process performance and can be used to determine process capabilities. Measurements will provide a comparison of performance to target objectives and assess the effectiveness of process improvements. SPC is statistically based and built around the concept that variation in a product is always present. Inherent variations occur due to wear of tools, material hardness, machine accuracy, and operator skills. In order to control the process and reduce variations, the cause must be identified through a collection of data. Mathematical distributions characterize the collected data and predict the overall performance. Variations that are outside of the desired process distribution can be corrected by improving the process directly. Three statistical tools shall be used to determine that the process is in control and follows a normal distribution curve. These tools include control charts, histograms, and mathematical analysis tests. Control charts are used to identify assignable causes of variations. A histogram is a graphic representation of a frequency distribution. Control charts for variable data will be created for quantitative measurements of sharpness of surgical instruments. Control charts for attribute data will be created for qualitative measurements or counts of defects. The average value () chart and the range (R) chart will be utilized as form of control charts in tracking and identifying the causes and variations. In making the control chart, the centerline and control limits are determined and drawn on the chart. The centerline is the average of the mean values. The purpose of the control limits on the chart is to indicate if the process is under control. It means that all are within the estimated 3 limits of the process. An upper control limit for control chart for attributes is UCL = + 1.96 x standard deviation, while the lower control limit is LCL = - 1.96 x standard deviation, where is the total number of defects divided by the number of observations. Standard deviation is defined as S = An upper control l

Organisational Change in the Oticon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Organisational Change in the Oticon - Essay Example The above issues regarding creativity appear in all aspects of life including business activities. In the case of Oticon, creativity has been expressed mostly through the initiatives taken by its president, Lars Kolind, who managed to apply an innovative strategy of change in all the company’s sectors within the 10 years that remained in the firm’s presidency. The whole creative management response of Kolind regarding Oticon is presented in Appendix Ia where the most important strategic decisions of Kolind had been summarized in order to create an ‘alternative Creative Management Response Model’ as presented in Appendix I. As shown in Appendix Ia, the main characteristics of change management applied by Kolind were the redefinition of the company’s vision, the creation of the project-based scheme of operation, the enhancement of the trust towards the employees, the development of technology used in all corporate sectors (from the administration depar tment to the production area) and the set of short-term goals rather than the long term plans which were proved to be inadequate for the company’s development in the modern commercial area. On the other hand, the reduction in the number of employees as taken place in the initial phase of change (in fact in the first two years of Kolind’s presidency) was only temporary and the restructuring of the company’s administration, as well as the reassignment of activities, led to the development of company’s performance on a continuous basis. Towards this direction, the enhancement of communication in the internal environment, as well as the promotion of the team work (through the cooperation of groups on a specific project), also supported the effectiveness of the strategy of change applied by Kolind. Every form of metaphor has its particular role in the business strategy (in accordance with the targets set by the organization’s leader) and it can be used along with other tools of strategic management in order to lead to specific results.

Process Improvement Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Process Improvement Plan - Essay Example First process identified is going to sterile processing department. Second Process identified is taking instruments set for service. Third process identified is sharpening and repairing surgical instruments. Among the three processes, two of which can be measured. Instruments set for service can be measured for their quality, sharpness and usability. Sharpened and repaired surgical instruments can also be measured for their quality, sharpness and usability. Quality and usability are attribute characteristics of instruments that are intangible. The measurement of both characteristics can be a count of the number of defects. On the other hand, sharpness is a characteristic of the instrument that can be measured using a specialized instrument such as a micrometer. A statistical process control can be employed in order to measure the sharpness of a surgical instrument. Statistical process control or SPC is a technique for error prevention rather than error detection. The goals of SPC are to improve quality, reduce cost, increase profit and enhance competitive advantage. Steps taken to improve a process will result in fewer defects and better quality products delivered to the customer. Application of SPC can produce improvements in yield, reduce cost and increase efficiency. It can also create a high degree of visibility of process performance and can be used to determine process capabilities. Measurements will provide a comparison of performance to target objectives and assess the effectiveness of process improvements. SPC is statistically based and built around the concept that variation in a product is always present. Inherent variations occur due to wear of tools, material hardness, machine accuracy, and operator skills. In order to control the process and reduce variations, the cause must be identified through a collection of data. Mathematical distributions characterize the collected data and predict the overall performance. Variations that are outside of the desired process distribution can be corrected by improving the process directly. Three statistical tools shall be used to determine that the process is in control and follows a normal distribution curve. These tools include control charts, histograms, and mathematical analysis tests. Control charts are used to identify assignable causes of variations. A histogram is a graphic representation of a frequency distribution. Control charts for variable data will be created for quantitative measurements of sharpness of surgical instruments. Control charts for attribute data will be created for qualitative measurements or counts of defects. The average value () chart and the range (R) chart will be utilized as form of control charts in tracking and identifying the causes and variations. In making the control chart, the centerline and control limits are determined and drawn on the chart. The centerline is the average of the mean values. The purpose of the control limits on the chart is to indicate if the process is under control. It means that all are within the estimated 3 limits of the process. An upper control limit for control chart for attributes is UCL = + 1.96 x standard deviation, while the lower control limit is LCL = - 1.96 x standard deviation, where is the total number of defects divided by the number of observations. Standard deviation is defined as S = An upper control l

The role of agricultural sector as an accelerator for economic growth in Nigeria Essay Example for Free

The role of agricultural sector as an accelerator for economic growth in Nigeria Essay 1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY Agriculture is a systemic and controlled use of living organism and the environment in the improvement of human condition. It also covers farming, husbandry, cultivation of plants, animals, and other life forms for food, fiber, bio-fuel, and drugs. Agriculture is the science, art, or occupation concerned with cultivating land, raising crops, and feeding, breeding, and raising livestock; farming (Dictionary.com). It also is the practice of cultivating and farming animals, food and other life forms that are used to sustain life. It is a science and was key to the rise of human civilisations as agriculture enabled man to be able to feed himself and produce surpluses (Ask.com). Economic Growth, defined as the increasing capacity of an economy to produce goods and services, compared from one period of time to another. Economic growth can be measured in nominal terms, which include inflation, or in real terms, which are adjusted for inflation. For comparing one economic growth to another, GDP or GNP per capita should be used to take into account population difference between countries (Investopedia). The growth of an economy is thought of, not only as an increase in productive capacity but also as an improvement in the quality of life of the people of that economy. The agricultural sector plays a major role in the provision of food, security of raw materials for industries, employment, market for industrial goods such as agro-chemical, tractor and fertilizers, and foreign exchange within the context of capital formation. Before oil, Nigeria had oil; with oil, she had additional opportunity of crops like groundnut, cocoa and rubber. These crops were cultivated in large quantities and exported to Europe and America in the pre-1960s and early-60s, (Nigeria’s founding fathers built the nation from agricultural resources; but since the days of the oil boom we have abandoned all the great opportunities that come with the business of Agriculture). With Military incursions into Nigerian government and the dependence on petroleum products as the foremost foreign exchange earner, the attention to the agricultural sector dwindled. Nigeria’s groundnut pyramids disappeared, the oil palm plantations vanished and farming went back to the subsist ent level. With an increasing population, it became increasingly difficult to feed the masses, and the  country resorted to importing food to supplement the ones grown at home. The agricultural sector has played a crucial role in the social and economic growth and development of Nigeria; however, its full potential has not been reached. In the last two decades, government has paid very little attention to the growth of the agricultural sector, though there has been increased farm output at great cost through major projects, massive investments in rural infrastructure and the introduction of modern seed varieties and chemicals. The agricultural sector is yet to boast of any contribution whereas about 75% of export earnings in the 1970s were from agriculture. Agriculture as a major sector of the Nigerian economy can provide up to 70% of the population with employment. The sector in recent times is being transformed by commercialization at the small, medium and large-scale enterprise levels. Major crops include beans, sesame, cashew nuts, cassava, cocoa beans, groundnuts, gum Arabic, kolanut, maize (corn), melon, millet, palm kernel, palm oil, plantains, rice, rubber, sorghum, soyabeans, and yam in the area of land cultivation, and Fish Farming, Piggery and Poultry in the area of animal husbandry, but this is yet to assure the nature of food security and enough foreign exchange earnings desired. Wikipedia recorded that in 1990, 82 million hectares out of Nigeria’s total land area of about 91million hectares were found to be arable, although only 42% of cultivatable area was farmed; leaving us with unused arable land of about 58%. In 2013, the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) was introduced by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture. The Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) has a great potential in enhancing the role of agriculture as an engine of inclusive growth leading to rural employment, Wealth creation, and diversification of the economy. A major policy accomplishment in the sector is the liberation of seed and fertilizer supply, which had until now been controlled by the federal government, undermined the private sector and did not deliver the inputs to genuine farmers. Since September 2011, fertilizers and seeds are being sold by the companies directly to farmers. Lending commitments from commercial banks has been leveraged using guarantees issued by th e Ministry of Finance. In order to provide a legal framework for the establishment and perpetuity of staple crop processing zones, and transform the Nigerian agricultural sector with significant multiplier effects on the entire economy, an Act to provide a legal framework for the establishment of  Staple Crop Processing Zones (SCPZ) is currently being drafted prepared to the National Assembly for adoption. Agriculture has a stronghold in any economy, for without it, a country will always have to depend on foreign countries to feed her population thereby exposing herself to the issues of food security. Moreover, the growth in the agricultural sector could be a catalyst for national output through its effect on rural incomes and provision of resources for transformation into the industrialized economy. Therefore; it is clear that agricultural growth has played a historically important role in the process of economic development as evidence from industrialized countries like China and India. Countries that are just rapidly developing today have also indicated that the sector has been the engine that contributes to the growth of the overall economy like China. 1.2STATEMENT OF PROBLEM Agriculture is the single largest contributor to the well-being of the rural poor in Nigeria, sustaining about 86% of rural household in the country. Improved agricultural development and growth, can offer a pathway out of poverty. But until very recently, agriculture has suffered the effect of several decades of neglect. Nigeria’s agricultural policies have been inconsistent, uncoordinated and ad hoc. After very slow growth during the 1970s and 1980s, agricultural growth began to pick during the 1990s and, since 2000, has averaged 5.6 per annum. However, even with the rapid agriculture growth of the past decade, Nigeria still has one of the highest poverty rates in the world. A paradigm shift towards a sound evidence-based policymaking process is needed to promote more equitable, gender sensitive and environmentally sustainable growth in the agricultural sector. The recent food price surge has made this shift even more important. It is clear that Nigeria has an arable land of about 82 million hectares and only 48% has been farmed. It is also clear that the agricultural sector is sustaining about 86% of the rural household in the country. There has also been a lack of coordination of agriculture policies. The reason Nigeria still has one of the highest ratings of poverty in the world. This research work is targeted at reconciling the opportunity inherent in the Nigeria’s poor/rural population; vis-à  -vis the massive uncultivated arable land through small scale agricultural support from the government. It will further re-echo  existing solutions as well as provide additional information on our challenges in agriculture as a nation, with a view to providing thought provoking and inciteful analysis of the opportunities inherent in an agricultural based economy, particularly for a blessed nation like Nigeria with quality arable land, and enough water resources to support animal husbandry. 1.3OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main objective of this research work is to study the roles of agricultural sector as an accelerator for the economic growth in Nigeria. Specific objectives: The study is aimed at: 1. Assessing the various policies and programmes used in promoting the agricultural sector in Nigeria, failures and successes. 2. Evaluating the performance of the agricultural sector of Nigeria over the years, that is1980-2012 and the way forward. 3. Making suggestions as to how the full potential of the sector could be realized in line with the successful policies and other developments. 1.4RESEARCH QUESTIONS This study seeks to find answers to the following research questions; 1. What are the roles of the agricultural sector in relations to the growth of the Nigerian economy? 2. What efforts has the government made to restore the agricultural sector in Nigeria? 3. What is the performance of the agricultural sector of Nigeria over the years? 4. What could be done to make the agricultural sector achieve its full potential? 1.5RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS The research hypothesis is to create a relationship between the growth on agricultural sector and the Nigerian economy as well as the inverse relationship between them. = Growthof the agricultural sector playsno significant roles in the economy. = Growthof the agricultural sector plays significant roles in the economy. 1.6SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The significance of this study depends on the fact that with an improved economy, Nigeria stands to gain in its effects towards economic growth. It is advantageous to both the government and citizens; in the sense that its  serves as a guide for future governmental policy on agriculture and when this is well implemented, we will notice that the welfare and standards of living of the citizens will be improved. 1.7THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY This study examines the timeframe of 1980-2012. The purpose of choosing this period is to empirically test the significance or the extent to which the agricultural sector contributes to the economy’s growth despite the several years of government’s neglect, and to re-emphasize the need to properly coordinate Government policies and reconcile the opportunity of our rural population with the available natural resources, particularly the arable land for optimum usage and the renewal effects towards stabilizing the agricultural sector. The performance of Nigeria’s agricultural sector shall be evaluated in detail as well as efforts of the government at restoring the sector examined. This study will also go further to discuss the major constraints on the performance of the Nigeria agricultural sector. The limitations are due to lack of available data information, time factor, and cost involved in carrying out this type of research. 1.8DEFINITION OF TERMS. i. Capital Formation; this can be defined as the transfer of savings from individuals or households to the business sector, directly through investment or indirectly through banks. ii. Husbandry; this is defined as the science of raising crops or food animals or the cultivation and production of edible crops or of animals for food. iii. Labour-Intensive; is a process or industry that requires large amount of labour to produce its goods and services. iv. Global Warming; an increase in earth’s average atmospheric temperature that causes corresponding changes in climate and that may result from the greenhouse effect. v. Greenhouse Effect; an atmospheric heating phenomenon, caused by short wave solar radiation being readily transmitted inward through the earth’s atmosphere but longer wave length heat radiation less readily transmitted outwards, owing its absorption by atmospheric carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, and other gases; thus the rising level of carbon dioxide is viewed with concern. CHAPTER TWO 2.1 INTRODUCTION This section presents the theoretical, methodological and empirical review of literature. The theoretical review covers various theories on the subject matter, while the methodological review also cover various methodological issues used in the past studies and the empirical review present various findings that results from the methodologies. 2.2THEORETICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE The study of economic history provides us with ample evidence that an agricultural revolution is a fundamental pre-condition for economic development (Eicher and Witt, 1964, Olusanmi, 1966, Jones and Wolff, 1969). The agricultural sector has the potentials to be the industrial and economic spring board from which a country’s development can take off. Indeed, agricultural activities are usually concentrated in the less developed rural transformation, redistribution, poverty alleviation and socio-economic development (Stewart, 2000). Agriculture can be advanced beyond its primary function of supplying food and its primary cultural sector has the potential to shape the landscape, guarantee the sustainable management of renewable resources of many rural areas (Humbert, 2000). In fact, through its different spheres of activities at macro and micro levels, the agricultural sector is strategically positioned to have a higher multiplier effect on any nation’s quest for socio-ec onomic and industrial development. It is very obvious that a sustainable agricultural growth has been highly instrumental in Brazil’s rapid rural transformation, the empowerment of Brazilian peasant and the alleviation of abject poverty. Interestingly, the Nigerian economy like that of Brazil during the first decade after independence could reasonably be described as an agricultural economy because agriculture serves as the engine of growth of the overall economy (Ogen, 2003: 231-234). From the stand point of occupational distribution and contribution of GDP, agriculture was the leading sector. During this period, Nigeria was the world’s second largest producer of cocoa, largest exporter of palm kernel and largest producer and exporter of palm oil. Nigeria was also a leading exporter of other commodities such as cotton, groundnut, rubber and hides and skin (Alkali 1977: 15-16). The agricultural sector contributed over 60% to the GDP in the 1960s and despite the reliance of the Nigerian peasant  farmers on traditional tools and indigenous farming method, the farmers produce 70% of Nigeria’s export and 95% of its food needs (Lawal 1997: 195). However, the agricultural sector suffered neglect during the hay days of boom in the 1970s. Ever since then, Nigeria has been witnessing extreme poverty. Historically, the root of the crisis in Nigerian economy lies in the neglect of agriculture and the increased dependence on a monoculture economy based on oil. The agricultural sector now accounts for less than 5% of Nigeria’s GDP (Olagboju and Falola 1996: 263). It is against this back drop that this paper sets out to draw comparative analysis from the Brazilian experience for possible replication in Nigeria. Such an approach is particularly feasible given the fact that Nigeria shares so much in common with Brazil in terms of a highly conducive agricultural climate, huge and diverse population as well as the availability of natural resources. 2.2.1MEANING OF ECONOMIC GROWTH According to Turrets (1987) â€Å"the economic growth of a country can be defined in various ways as an increase in gross domestic product, in real GDP or in per capital GDP†. It is clear therefore, that the rate of growth of the real GDP country. If we want to determine the growth in Nigeria for example, the rate of growth of its real GDP stands as the most appropriate measure. Alternatively, we can also examine the meaning of economic growth through the use of production possibility curve. A production possibility curve is used to depict the maximum quantities of two goods or types of goods that can be produced when all the resources of the country are fully and efficiently utilized. However, smith (1996) visualised that economic growth results from specialization of labour, application of new technology as well as through international trade. But one important fact to note is that, since economic activities tend to or shift outward, countries will always record a positive g rowth rate and sometimes negative, such as inward of country’s production possibility curve (PPC) (Clawer, Graves and Sexton, 1989).Nigeria’s economy had in some ears of the late1980s and through 1990s recorded some negative growth rate and in fact, still does till date and even beyond. 2.2.2AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH Development economists in general and agricultural economists in particular,  have focused on how agriculture can best contribute to overall economic growth and modernization. Many early analyst (Fel and Rani, 1954; Jorgensen 1961; Hirschman 1958; Scitovsky 1954; Lewis 1954; Rosentein-rodan 1943), have highlighted agriculture because of its abundance of resources and its ability to transfer surpluses to the more important industrial sector. The conventional approach to the roles of agriculture in economic growth concentrated on agriculture’s important market-mediated linkages, and they are: i. Providing food for the expanding population with higher income. ii. Providing labour for an urbanized industrial work force. iii. Supplying savings for investment in industry. iv. Enlarging markets for industrial output providing export earnings to pay for imported capital goods and v. Providing primary material for agro processing industries (Timer 2002, Delgado et al 1994, Ravis et al 1990, Johnson and Mellor 1961). Rapid agricultural productivity growth is a prerequisite for the market mediated linkages to be mutually beneficial. Productivity growth that resulted from agriculture has had enormous impacts on food supplies and food prices and consequent beneficial impacts on food security and poverty reduction (Hazel and Hag blade 1993, Binswanger 1980, Hayami and Herdt 1977, Pinstrup Anderson 1976); Alston et al (1996), posit that because a relatively high proportion of any income gain made by the poor is spent on food, the income effect of research induced supply shift can have major multinational implications, particularly if those shift results from technologies aimed at the poorest producers. Agricultural productivity growth also triggers the generat ion of non-market mediated linkages between the agricultural sector and the rest of the economy. These includes the indirect contribution of a vibrant agricultural sector to food security and poverty alleviation, safely net and buffer role; and the supply of environmental services (FAO, 2004). While agricultures direct private contributions to form households are tangible, easy indirect benefits tend to be over looked in assessing rate of returns. Ignoring the whole range of economic and social contributions of agriculture underestimates the returns to investments in the sector (Valdes and Foster, 2005). Some empirical evidence exists on the positive relationship between agricultural growth (Valdes and Foster 2005). The transformation of agriculture from its  traditional subsistence roots induced by technical change, to a modernizing agricultural sector is a phenomenon observed across the developing world. Concluding, it is clear that agricultural growth has played a historically important role in the process of economic development. Evidence from industrialized countries that are rapidly developing today indicates that agriculture was the engine that contributed to growth in the non-agricultural sectors and to overall economic wellbeing. Economic growth originating in agriculture can have a particular strong impact in reducing poverty and hunger. Increasing employment and income in agriculture stimulates demand for non-agricultural goods and services, thereby providing a boost to non-farm rural income earners as well. 2.2.3AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. The contribution of agriculture to economic development lies in: i. Providing more food to the rapidly expanding population increasing the demand for industrial product, and thus necessitating the expansion of secondary and tertiary sectors. ii. It can release workers needed for the production of non-agricultural goods and services. iii. It can provide a source of capital that can be invested in improved productive facilities in the rest of the economy (Timer 2002, Delgado et al 1994, Ravis et al 1996. Johnson and Mellor 1961). A progressive urban industrial economy contributes, in turn, to the rapid development of agriculture by expanding the market for agricultural products; by supplying the farm machinery, chemical fertilizers and so on, that raise the level of agricultural technology; by expanding productive employment opportunities for workers released from agriculture by technological change; and by making possible improvements in the quality of rural life by raising standards of consumption both in urban and rural areas (Binswanger, 1980). A rise in rural purchasing power, as a result of the increased agricultural surplus, is a great stimulus to industrial development. The market for manufactured goods is very small in an underdeveloped country where the peasant farm labourers and their families, comprising typically two goods in addition to whatever they need. There is lack of real purchasing power thus reflecting the low productivity in agriculture. The basic problem thus is low investment return caused by small size of the market. Increased rural  purchasing power caused by expansion of agricultural output and productivity will tend to raise the demand for manufactured goods and extend the size of the market. This will lead to the expansion of the industrial sector (Lewis, 1954). Moreover, the demand for such inputs as fertilizers, tractors, better tools, implements, irrigational facilities in the agricultural sectors will all lead to the greater expansions of the agricultural sector. Besides, the means of transport and communications will expand to urban areas and manufactured goods to the rural areas. The long run effects of the expansion of the secondary and tertiary sectors will be towards higher profits in them whether they are operated in the private or the public sector. These profits will tend to increase the rate of capital fo rmation through their re-investment. That is what Kuznets calls the â€Å"market contributions† of agriculture when it trades with other sectors of the economy. Underdeveloped countries mostly specialize in the production of a few agricultural goods for export. As output and productivity of the exportable goods expand, their exports increase and results in larger foreign exchange earnings. Thus agricultural surplus leads to capital formation when capital goods are imported with this foreign exchange. As development gains momentum due to industrialization, the proportion of agricultural export in the country’s total exports is likely to fall as they are needed in large quantities for domestic production of imported articles. Such articles are import substitutes and conserve foreign exchange. Similarly, increased marketed surplus of food grains leads to a net saving of foreign exchange, as the economy tries to achieve the goal of self-sufficiency in food production. Larger productions of food and export crops do not only conserve and earn foreign exchange, but also leads to expansion of the other sectors of the economy. Foreign exchange earnings can be used to build efficiency of other industries and help the establishment of new indus tries by importing scare raw materials, machines, capital equipment and technical know-how. Kuznets calls it the â€Å"product contribution† of agriculture which first argues about the growth of net output of the economy and the growth of per capita output. An underdeveloped needs large amounts of capital to finance expansion of the infrastructure and for the development of basic and heavy industries. In the early stages of development, capital can be provided by increasing the marketable surplus from the rural sector without reducing  consumption levels from population. According to Johnson and Mellor (1961) â€Å"an increase in agricultural productivity implies some combination of capital formation when it is reduced on the farm and employed in construction works†. But the possibility of utilizing unskilled surplus form labour on capital project requiring skilled labour is limited. The second possibility of increasing capital formation through reduced agricultural prices is also not feasible in the early stages of development when the rise in price is not feasible. Reduction in agricultural prices is not feasible. Reduction in agricultural prices is possible in the long run but democratic countries may not be able to follow this reasoning for political reasons. A more practicable solution is to stabilize the prices in farm products. The third possibility of increasing farm receipts is perhaps the best way for capital formation. This can be done by mobilizing increased farm incomes through agricultural income tax, land registration charges, s chool fees, for providing agricultural technical services and other types of fees that cover all or part of the farm population. But â€Å"political and institutional problems makes it difficult to translate the increased potential for saving and capital accumulation, made possible by increased agricultural productivity, into an actual increase in investment in underdeveloped countries. According to Wald, special assessments have had their widest application in the United States. In view of the fact that they are specially designed for financing such developed projects as irrigation works, flood control system and certain classes of roads, all of which are extremely important for underdeveloped countries like India that â€Å"the penalties of too light taxation on agriculture are a stagnating farm sector, a financially starved public sector and a retarded rate of economic growth in the country as a whole; (Wald, 1995). Thus countries were agriculture dominates, the taxation of agriculture in one form or another is essential for mobilizing agricultural surplus in order to accelerate economic development. Kuznets calls it the â€Å"factor of contribution† when there is a transfer of resources to the other sectors, these resources to the other sectors, these resources being productive factors. Agriculture also expands and diversifies employment opportunities in rural areas. As agricultures productivity and farm income increases, non-farm rural employment expands and diversifies. Landless and marginal farmers are primarily engaged in  non-agricultural pursuits which includes the manufacturers of textile, furniture, tools, handicraft, leather and metal processing, marketing, transport, repair work, construction of houses and other buildings, education, medicine and other services, as these activities satisfy local demand. Lastly, increase in rural incomes as a result of the agricultural surplus tends to improve rural welfare. Peasant starts consuming more food especially of a higher nutritional value in the form of superior quality cereals, eggs, ghee, milk, fruits etc. They build better houses fitted with modern amenities like electricity, furniture, radio, fan etc. provide themselves with bicycles, motorcycles, watches, readymade garments, shoe etc. they also receive direct satisfaction from such services such as schools, health centres, irrigation, banking, transport and communication facilities. Thus increased agricultural surplus has the effect of raisi ng the standards of living of the mass of rural people. 2.2.4NIGERIAN ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT Nigeria was and is still basically an agricultural country despite the fact that there is significant growth in the other sector of the economy since her independence in 1960. Agriculture remains the single largest sector of the economy since it provides employment to a large segment of the work force and constituting the main stay of Nigeria’s rural population. Since 1985, the percentage of gross domestic product attributable to agriculture has been maintained about 31%, well ahead of mining and quarrying, which includes crude petroleum and gas as well as whole sale and retail trade, which are also the other two major contributors to GDP in Nigeria. Before 1970, the agricultural sector has enjoyed a relatively abundant supply of farm labour and cultivable land for agriculture was able to respond quite steadily to a rising demand. An expansion of land under cultivation and increased absorption of rural labour constituted a ready means for output expansion. However, the 1970s o il boom saw a high rate of rural-urban population migrating, which resulted into supply demand imbalance in the food subsector, while traditional export declined sharply in both absolute and relative terms. From 1970, Nigeria’s agriculture has been characterized by excess demand over supply due to high population growth rate, stagnant declining economic growth, high rate of globalization, increased demand for  agricultural raw materials by an expanding industrial sector and the rising per capita income which is stimulated by an oil export revenue boom. The decline in production of tradable has raised serious domestic and external balancing problems. The output of domestic inputs using agro-allied firms is constrained by output fluctuation, which reduces the size of export revenues and market shares. This adversely affects the balance of payment. The agricultural sector was estimated to decline at an annual average of 0.43% between 1970 and 1985 while the periods between 1975 and 1978 recorded the highest level of decline of 7.88%. The agricultural export crop sub-sectors contribution to the total foreign earnings declined from an average of 58% in the 1960s to only 5.2% between 1971 and 1985. Indeed, by 1980, Nigeria had become a net importer of food and most of its tradable export crops had either disappeared from the export list or merely maintained an insignificant presence. As it were, the agricultural export sub-sector became increasingly unable to meet the raw material needs to the primarily processing industries and furthermore, inflationary pressure characterized the economy, general degeneration of rural life and rural urban migration. Notwithstanding, the observed agricultural decline, agricultural policy appeared to have been more active in the 1970s than in the 1960s. In the formal period, the government implanted successful programme like National Agricultural Food Production Programme (NAFP), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) and green revolution programme, also banks assisted Agricultural Development Programme (ADP). Government also tried to improve marketing system for agricultural export crops by reforming the marketing board system in 1973, 1976 and 1977. Agricultural sector did not improve; as a result there was introduction of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986, which necessitated the deregulation of exchange rates and abolition of marketing board system. 2.2.5AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION DURING THE STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME (SAP) One of the most important debates the structural adjustment programme (SAP) has centred on the impact of the programme on agricultural sector. It was anticipated that the measures adopted under this programme will bring about increased domestic production of food and eventual elimination of food import, increase supply of manufacturing industries of agricultural raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, oil palm, rubber etc. was also anticipated (Obadan and Egbase, 1992). Also, the  diversification of export base of the economy would be enhanced with the increase in the agricultural prices and boom in the sector, production was expected to translate into rising rural employment, income and standard of living. Therefore, the agricultural production will be viewed from two perspectives, which is agricultural food production during SAP and agricultural export during SAP. 2.2.6AGRICULTURAL FOOD PRODUCTION DURING SAP Following the introduction of SAP in 1986, some writers have claimed that food production have been on the increasing sides. Since one of the expectations of complimenting this programme is to bring food and to make sure that the importation of food is eradicated. Iwayemi in 1994 found out that one of the positive developments in recent years is a merging trend of upward turn in the production of agricultural tradable (rice, soya beans and maize) and of the non-traded food category and cassava has performed impressively. Furthermore, it was discovered that immediately after the introduction of SAP, there were sharp increase in the prices of staples such as yam, cassava, rice, maize, etc. for instance the average market retail price in Kwara state rose from â‚ ¦450 per tonne to â‚ ¦560 per tonne in 1986 and â‚ ¦686 per tonne in 1986. Also, the average market price of rice in Kaduna state rose from â‚ ¦1500 in 1985 to â‚ ¦1700 and â‚ ¦2213 in 1992. These increases in the price of staples are adduced to high inflationary pressures resulting from SAP. Also Edgbai (1988)argued that the devaluation of the Naira following the advent of the SAP lead to spectacular increase in the prices of most agricultural inputs, implements and machinery. The percentage price increase of these inputs between 1985, the last pre-SAP year’s ranges between 50% and 70% using official prices subsequently there have indeed been increases in the producer prices of maize development. Finally, Iwayemi (1994) concluded that the most pressing problem in the sector is the lack of adequate production capacity to meet domestic food requirement of rapidly raising large population. 2.2.7AGRICULTURAL EXPORT DURING SAP The major aim of introducing SAP was to improve the agricultural export through the depreciation of the country’s currency. However, different researches hold different opinions concerning this. For instance, Obadan (1993) found out that SAP policy of exchange rate adjustment was an  important factor that positively affected supply of rubber and suggested that real depreciation of the naira for example, tends to stimulate rubber farmers to increase supply of export, thus talking advantage of the improved international competitiveness. In modern development, with the exception of rubber, the export elasticity of cocoa, palm kernel and processed or semi processed product with respect to change in exchange in Nigeria was generally of low order even in the long run. Hence, Obadan and Egbase (1992) concluded that export base production activities especially agriculture, have benefited from the SAP incentive arising particularly from naira to depreciation and trade liberalization. Thus, quantity of natural rubber exported rose from 32000 in 1985 to 108600 in 1991, changes in naira exchange rate significantly affected natural rubber supply under SAP. In contrast, Ajilim and Agba, (1986) claimed that there is over whelming evidence that SAP has very slim prospect for stimulating non-oil export e.g. cocoa. Also Dayo, (1996) discovered that the low elasticity estimate was due to limited volume of agricultural export earning in response to devaluation of the naira. Also, Ajayi (1988) and Osagie (1985) posit In that in Nigeria, exchange rate devaluation is stagnant and have no significant effect on the external trade balance because of low prices elasticity generally associated with the excess import and export demand functions. In other words Balogun (1987) estimated agricultural export function with exchange export has the redress and the result showed unresponsiveness of aggregate agricultural export to exchange rate, price and imported and agricultural input. He thus, concluded that the agricultural sector, which is dominated by smaller hold farming, is insulated from external trade variables or shocks. Finally, Obadan and Egbase (1992) argued that export base production activity, especially agriculture, have benefited from SAP incentives arising particularly from naira depreciation and trade liberalization, for example in response to the price and exchange liberalization, the quantity of natural exported rose from 32000tonnes in 1985 to 33000 in 1986 and 108800 in 1991 changes in naira exchange rate significantly affected natural rubber supply under SAP. However Obadan (1993) argued that the main objective of SAP has not been realized even though that the number of agricultural export have increase, the value is still in significant. 2.2.8THE EFFECT OF SAP AND THE AGRICULTURAL SECTOR AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. Warder (1995) analysed  the economic and political development on Nigeria’s agricultural sector including the application of the structural adjustment programme (SAP). He discovered that with the application of SAP, that the country was able to orient her agricultural production toward the production and exportation of cash crops while Husia and Farugee (1994) found out that for any developing country like Nigeria to experience the turn-around in our country, the country should establish and maintain macro-economic stability, eliminate discrimination against agriculture and take measures to remove anti export bias. Furthermore, Obadan (1994) stated that the agricultural sector during SAP was able to reverse negative gro wth of the economy during the early 1980s, because of more favourable more weather conditions and adoption of a floating exchange rate system which favoured agriculture deregulation of agricultural prices and the priority according to the implementation of the key public sector agricultural programs. Stanley (1987) added that SAP policy consisted of measures that are aim at achieving viability in the medium term balance of payment why the level and rate of growth of economy activity was maintained at the optimal level of operation. In addition Ojo (1988) stated that the effect of SAP on agricultural and rural development has brought about an increase in agricultural production and there was an improvement in rural development.He however, noted that the fundamental problems of Nigeria agriculture still persist. In contrast, since the theoretical bases of SAP is based on the invisible hand or market mechanism, Obadan and Ekuarhare (1993) opined that a Pareto system which required a free market economy may not be idea for a developing or even a developed country. This is because the market mechanism may faster efficiency but not equity. The price mechanism which is concerned with state resources allocation undermines economic growth and development in developing countries. ‘â €™consequently, without governments intervention in economic activities, the market leads to misallocation of present and future resource or at least to one which may not be in long run in the best interests of the society’’ (Torado 1977, 164 quoted in Obadan and Ekuarhare 1993). Finally, Obadan and Ekuarhare opined further that the fiscal monetary exchange policy mix contained in SAP is inter-consistent with economic recovery from a recession (from which the country has been battling due to external shock and the crisis of accumulation within the domestic bourgeoisie). Recovery  from this cyclical downturn characterized by below capacity nation production would require an increase in government expenditure to provide greater employment and increased social benefit. In other words, the deflation an economy coupled with deregulation and liberalization will not lead to an upturn of the economy. Therefore,Obadan (1993) discovered that the main objective of SAP has not been realized even though the number of non-oil manufactured agricultural export items have increased the value and is still insignificant. For instance, exchange in-flow from non-oil exports reduce from $557million in 1985(per SAP) to $538 million in 1987. It increased to $613 million in 1988 bu t reduced drastically to $406million in 1990 and by 1992; the sector only contributed 3.6% of the nation’s foreign exchange. The value of agricultural export which stood at an average of â‚ ¦408.7 million before declining sharply to â‚ ¦270.8 million in 1981-1985, owing largely to decline in cash crop producers. During SAP, export earnings grew to â‚ ¦1822.9 million in 1986-1990 for primary agricultural commodities such as tubers, fruits and spices coming on board. In addition, export of manufacturers and semi manufacturers of agricultural products which earned only â‚ ¦37.2 million in 1891-1985 recorded the sum of â‚ ¦214.9 million in 1986-1990 as Nigeria became exporter of textile, soap, detergent, beer, beverages and skin in addition to cocoa products. Emmanuel (2002) viewed productivity as the wealth of a nation. According to him, Nigeria is generously endowed with abundant natural resources. He further argued that if this enormous resources base is well managed, through increased productivity, the wealth of the nation is bound to increase. He argued that a farmer plants a seed and reaps several harvesting period, productivity has increased and the wealth of a nation has increased too. The mercantilists (18th century) argued that productivity in the agricultural sector contributed the least to the economic growth. They said that it only promoted domestic trade and did not fore see mechanization and modernization that took over manual labour in the agricultural sector, as agricultural commodities are not only traded domestically but exported to other countries. 2.2.9AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND EXPORT The breakdown of agricultural production into its component parts reveals the problems during 1985 period. While food production recorded only a marginal  increase export crop production declined sharply. The inadequate domestic food production is reflected in Nigeria’s massive food imports, especially in the 1970’s to argument domestic supply. The supply in the production of some of Nigeria’s cultural export commodities was most worrisome for instance, Nigeria that was ranked as the world leading producer and exporter of palm oil in the 1960s had become the net importer of this commodity in the mid-70s. Similarly, Nigeria’s cocoa production, which reached its peak of 309000 tonnes in 1970-71, fell drastically to 160000 tonnes in 1985. The sharp turn down in the gross value terms of trade in agriculture was equally serious. The ratio of agricultural exports to food imports which stood at 143% in 1970-1975 suffered significant deterioration and reached th e lowest at 38% by 1976-1982. The performance of agriculture during the review period was underdetermined mainly by its neglect coupled with a chain of distributive created by the oil boom. 2.3THE METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW OF LITERATURE Several policies as well as policy instruments have been put to place over the year by successive government in Nigeria. Some had positive effect while the others had negative effects. Olayami (1985) identified three distinct agricultural policy era under which the agricultural sector developed for the past three decades, these includes; the 1960-1969 era, the 1970-1985 eras. These policies were targeted at improving the performance of the sector during this period. A review of these policies would be discussed; Agricultural policy during these periods was limited to marketing and pricing for which the marketing board was established. Actually, at the outbreak of World War 2 in 1939, government owned marketing boards were setup in British, West Africa to assure orderly marketing and to protect British supplies of raw materials (Adegbola and Akinbode, 1986). Government was involved in agricultural research and extension of services but the issue of self-sufficiency in agriculture for food and raw materials was not pursued. Also investment in agriculture with initiatives to improve employment was left to the initiative in farming. During this period, there was decentralised approach to agriculture with initiatives being left to the regions and the states while the federal government played a supportive role. Regional government were executing abhor policies, programme and  projects. There was no institutional federal responsibility for agriculture and there were no specific agricultural sector objectives. There were a number of policies and programme and some of them are discussed below; 2.3.1AGRICULTURAL MARKETING POLICY The agricultural marketing board system was used extensively in marketing agricultural products during this period. The system started with the establishment of a commodity marketing board in 1947 and for groundnut, palm produce and cotton in 1949. In 1954, the board became regionalized with one multi commodity marketing board for each of the regions, and later for each of the states. The board accumulated huge trading surpluses which were used to mobilize substantial savings for the government. These surpluses were generated at the expense of the stability of farmers’ income. The farmers’ income was kept low and with increasing risk on the farm declining world commodity prices of the mid 60s, there was an incentive for peasant increase production (Adubi, 1966). 2.3.2AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION PROJECTS The regional government of the east and western Nigeria stared this project and then later the north, to encourage the development of these crops. There financed from surpluses of the marketing boards. This was before the creation state, the UNIX oil palm plantation (now in Rivers and Cross Rivers), the Hushin rubber estates (now in Ogun state), and the upper Ogun cattle ranches etc. 2.3.3FARM SETTLEMENT SCHEME In the early 1960s the regional government assisted school leavers who were willing to go into agriculture establishment farm settlement scheme in places like Edo, Ilora, Ikenne, Ibadan and so on. The farm settlement were setup as model for other farmers who often look up practises being carried out by settlers and had easy access to farm equipment and services. However, due to non-ownership pattern of the scheme, farm and house power supply problems and the limited individuals’ holdings, most settlers were not committed. The owned land outside the greater settlement and mainly used the opportunity to obtain services through membership of a settlement scheme (Adegbola and Akinbode, 1986) 2.3.41970-1985 ERA (PERIOD OF MAXIMUM  GOVERNMENT INTERVENSION) Agricultural production started to decline towards the end of the decades of 1960s. Export crops outputs were stagnating while export volumes begin to decrease, and there was evidence of food shortages in the country. The 1963 G DP figures for example shows that agriculture crops, livestock, fishing and forestry accounted for 64% of total GDP and the average for 1960s decade estimated at 56%. Similarly, in the export sector, the percentage of agricultural produce was declining (Adubi, 1966). The problem of agricultural production decline was ascribed partly to the civil war and partly to the declining commodity process in the world market and the incentive to production due to taxation of the commodity board. There was therefore greater involvement of the government in agriculture. The expenditure of government and therefore for its investment increase in the sector specific sector emphasis of policy was on accelerating production of the staple food crops and some export crops. There was a fundamental shift in the strategy compared with the decade of 1960s and the federal government became more involved in the sector.The strategy taken, led to the launching of several special programme and projects. Also specialised in institutions were setup to ensure smooth implementation of the agricultural policies; the period witnessed many macroeconomic and sector specific policies, which directly or indirectly affects agricultural production. Many of the macroeconomic policies of the government had wide spread effect on agriculture, though not targeted at the agricultural sector, until there are some programme which includes marketing policy, input supply and distribution policy and input subsidy policy. Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) and River Basin Development Authority (RBDA) were also established to promote agricultural developments. 2.3.5THE 1985-1999 ERA (SAP AND POST SAP PERIOD) With the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986, government admitted the failure of past policies to significantly improve the economy and reverse the declining trend of production in the agricultural sector. The SAP relied most especially on the agricultural sector to achieve the objectives of its far reaching refunds on diversification of export and adjustment of the consumption structure of the economy. The philosophy of SAP for the agricultural sector was that only the interplay of the market  forces could foster efficiency in the sector. The government was therefore expected to play minimal role for private sector initiative in the sector. Many of the policy measure adopted in SAP and macro in nature and those that affect agriculture also fall directly into fiscal, monetary, trade and exchange rate policies as well as institutional policy refunds. Many institutions such as National Directorate of Employment (NDE), Directorate of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFR RI), National Agricultural Insurance Company (NAIC), National Land Development Authority (NALDA) were established to assist new farmers and promote agriculture development in the rural areas. Essentially, these policies and programme were implemented until 1999. The changes in the government during the review period 1985-1999 also led to modifications of some of the policies above, which essentially formed the major focus of government on agricultural development. 2.3.6THE NEW MILLENNIUM AGRICULTURAL POLICIES (1999-2003) At the inception of the new democratic administration in May 1999 and shortly before then, several institutional changes were made in order to realize the sector’s objectives and in line with its belief that agricultural and rural development are sine que non for improved economy recovery (Olamola, 2003) these includes the relocation of department of cooperatives. Division of the ministry of Water Resources to the ministry of agriculture all before 1999, the scrapping of the erst while National Agricultural Land Development Department, the scrapping of the Federal Agriculture Coordinating Unit (FACU) and the Agricultural Project Monitoring and Evaluating Unit (APMEU) and the setting up of Project Co-ordination Unit (PCU) and the stream lining institution for agricultural credit delivery with the emergency of the Nigerian Agricultural Co-operative and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB) and the peoples bank and the asset of the Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP). New inst itutions are also evolving to enable the Nigerian agricultural sectors respond to the imperative of the emerging global economic order. The new agricultural policy has a clear statement of objectives amid the structural transformation necessary for the overall socio-economic development of the country as well as the improvement in the quality of life of Nigeria. This objective reflects the current policy recognition of agriculture as a vital sector under the poverty reduction  programme (FMARD, 2003). The government also seeks to pursue the following specific objectives: i. Attainment of self-sufficiency in basic food commodities with particular reference to those which consume considerable shares of Nigerian’s foreign exchange and for which the country has comparative advantage in local production. ii. Increase in production and processing of exportable commodities with a view to increase their foreign exchange earning capacity and further diversifying the country’s export base and source of foreign exchange earnings. iii. Increase in production of agricultural raw materials to meet the growth of an expanding industrial sector. iv. Modernization of agricultural production, processing, storage and distribution through the infusion of improved technologies and management so that agriculture can be more responsive to the demand s of other sectors of the Nigerian economy. v. Creation of more agricultural and rural employment opportunities to increase income of farmers and rural dwellers, productivity absorbed and increasing labour force in the nation. These objectives are properly in agreement with the whole concept of agricultural sustainability and inter-linkage between agriculture and each of the relevant sectors of the economy. As it is usual with the specification of agricultural policy objectives from time immemorial, these objectives are clearly presented and are basically consistent with the overall strategy of diversifying the productive base of the economy for an increased foreign exchange generation, higher level of employment and productivity and improved economy recovery. Specification of policy objectives had been the most easily accomplished component of agricultural policy formulation in particular and development planning experience in the country in general. It is therefore not surprising that the specified objectives in the new policy document are indeed comprehensive and quite appropriate. 2.4POLICY EVALUATION It might be difficult to evaluate all the policies objectively given the space and the focus. However, evidence from some authors (Olayemi 1995, Olamola 1998, Garb 1998) has indicated minimal positive impact of these policies. Also, the performance of the sector is far from being fully satisfactory. The evidence of these is the decaying rural infrastructure, decline domestic and foreign investment in agriculture. In fact the  increasing withdrawal of manufacturing companies from their backward integrated agricultural ventures has reduced investment in the sector considerably. Input supply and distribution have been inefficient and most agricultural institutions are ineffective. The evidence of ineffectiveness is the scrapping in the year 2000 of some of the institutions established for agricultural production, a critical examination of the policies and there implementation over the years to show policy instability. This problem is not unconnected with the political instability in t he country. Between 1979 and 1999, the country has passed through five military and civilian regimes. In between the minister of agriculture at the federal level and the various commissioners for agriculture at the state level were changed several times on the average of one per two years. Several policy measures were stated and changed without sufficient rating for policy effect or result. 2.4.1POLICY INCONSISTENCIES. With respect to agricultural production, the sector has passed through several periods of production and unbridled opening up for competition. It has also passed through eras of no government and less government involvement in direct agricultural production. The consistencies of policy transparency, leads to poor implementation and mismanagement of policy instruments. 2.5EMPERICAL REVIEW Oji-Okoro (2011) investigate the contribution of agricultural sector on the Nigerian economic development and reveal that foreign direct investment on agriculture contribute the most (56.43), this means that for every unit of change in FDI on agriculture there is a corresponding change of 56.43 unit in GDP in Nigeria. Suleiman and Aminu (2010) conducted research on the contribution of agriculture, petroleum and manufacturing sector of the Nigerian economy and found out that agricultural sector is contributing higher than both petroleum and manufacturing sectors. The paper reveals that agriculture is contributing 1.7978 units to GDP while petroleum is contributing 1.14 units to GDP which is less than the contribution of agriculture. Awe and Ajayi (2009) conducted research on the diversification of the significant when the log of revenue from agriculture was tested on the revenue from agriculture. About 60 percent of the movement could be  explained in the relationship. The findings from the study further revealed that dynamic relationship exists between the revenue from the non-oil sector economic development. Ekpo and Umoh (2012) revealed that the contribution of agriculture to GDP, which was 63 percent in 1960, declined to 34 percent in 1988, not because the industrial sector increased its share but due to neglect of agriculture sector. It was therefore not surprising that by 1975, the economy had become a net importer of basic food items. The apparent increase in industry and manufacturing from 1978 to 1988 was due to activities in the mining sub-sector, especially petroleum. Muhammad and (2006) conducted study on production of agriculture in Nigeria and revealed that the negative coefficient of the value (-0.07) of the food imports indicates that as food import increases, domestic agricultural production decreases. This might be due to the fact that food importation exposes the local farmers to unfair competition by foreign producers who usually take advantage of economies of scale in production due to their access to better production technology. The positive coefficient (286.91) of t he GDP growth rate indicates that increase in the GDP also moves domestic agricultural production in the same direction. This shows that increased domestic economic activity has the impact of increasing the domestic agricultural production. This may be due to the fact that most economic activity in the country is related to agriculture. The result also shows that population increases has been a major contribution to domestic agricultural production in Nigeria with the coefficient (18424.73). This may be due to the fact that majority of the populace are engaged in agriculture, meaning more hand on the farm as population increases. The coefficient of consumer price index was positive (8.49). This shows that as consumer price increases domestic agricultural production also increases’, meaning that domestic agricultural production is positively related to increase in consumer prices. This may be due to the fact that increase in price stimulates supply on the farmer’s side leading to more production of food. More agro-processing activities must therefore be embarked upon in order that farmers may be able to dispose of their produce at fairly reasonable prices. The result of the coefficient (0.04) of government expenditure was positive, that is domestic agricultural production is positively related to increase in government expenditure, meaning that as government expends more on agriculture, domestic  agricultural production also increases. The reason why it was not significant might be due to the fact that government has not been investing so much on agriculture over the years.